English Literature

  War Poets: A Note The First World War and its horrors greatly influenced Modern Poetry. Poets like Richard Aldington, Laurence Binyon, Edmund Blunden, Rupert Brooke, Wilfrid Wilson Gibson, Robert Graves, Julian Grenfell, Ivor Gurney, David Jones, Robert Nichols, Wilfred Owen, Herbert Read, Isaac Rosenberg, Siegfried Sassoon, Charles Hamilton Sorley and Edward Thomas composed war poems. Poets like Rupert Brooke and some others did not personally experience the horrors of war. That is why they sang of patriotism, nobility and sacrifice. But Wilfred Owen, Siegfried Sassoon and some others exposed the horror of war. It is because they personally experienced the horror of war. Charles Hamilton Sorley and Issac Rosenberg and all other poets mentioned above contributed a lot to the development of war poetry. In short, the war poets presented the ugly face of war in their poetry. हिंदी अनुवाद: प्रथम विश्व युद्ध और इसकी भयावहता ने आधुनिक कविता को बहुत प्रभावित किया। रिचर्ड एल्डिंगटन...

Georgian Poetry: A Short Note The Decadent movement was a late 19th century artistic and literary movement. It followed an aesthetic ideology of artificiality. The Georgian poetry is a reaction against that decadent transitional poetry. It is that poetry which was produced in the early 20th century by British poets. This poetry was lyrical in nature. It flourished in the reign of George V. The Georgians endeavoured to restore the simplicity and naturalness. They avoided the use of archaic diction and composed neat and melodious poems. Walter de la Mare, William Henry Davies, Rupert Brooke, John Drinkwater, Wilfrid Wilson Gibson, Harold Monro, Sir Edward Marsh, Masefield, Lascelles Abercrombie, Hilaire Belloc, Edmund Charles Blunden, Ralph Hodgson, James Elroy Flecker, Robert Graves, Siegfried Sassoon, Sir J.C. Squire and Edward Thomas etc are some important Georgian poets. हिंदी अनुवाद: डिकैडेंट आंदोलन 19वीं सदी के अंत का एक कलात्मक और साहित्यिक आंदोलन था। इसने कृत्रिमता की सौंदर्यव...

Modern Poetry: A Short Note Modern poetry in English started in the early years of the twentieth century. With the appearance the imagists, there occurred a change in English poetic outlook. The Romantic and Victorian traditions of poetry of the previous age were rejected. A revolution in poetic technique took place. This new poetry became remarkable for experiment. It appeared as the poetry of experience. Individualism, experimentation, absurdity, symbolism and formalism appeared as major characteristics of the modern poetry. In the new poetry, the poets expressed the chaos and changing scenario of the life and the society. The city, disillusionment, fragmentation and alienation became the major theme. T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, T.E. Hulme, Gerard Manley Hopkins, D. H. Lawrence, William Butler Yeats, James Joyce, William Carlos Williams, W. H. Auden, Robert Graves, Rudyard Kipling, Wilfred Owen and Wallace Stevens are some major contributors to the modern poetry. Hindi Translation:...

Sigmund Freud is an Austrian neurologist. He is popular as the founder of psychoanalysis. It is he who developed the Oedipus complex as a concept. He was born on May 6, 1856 in Freiberg, Moravia, Austrian Empire and died on September 23, 1939 in London, England. This great philosopher came to the conclusion that lapses in human behaviour are caused by worries and conflicts. Freud analysed things like dream, religion, sense of guilt, fear and shame. According to him Id, Ego and Super Ego control human behaviour. Sigmund Freud’s influence on literature has been very great. James Joyce, D. H. Lawrence, Thomas Mann, Brecht and Franz Kafka wrote under the influence of Freudian thought. Hindi Translation: सिगमंड फ्रायड एक ऑस्ट्रियाई न्यूरोलॉजिस्ट हैं। वह मनोविश्लेषण के संस्थापक के रूप में लोकप्रिय हैं। ये वे हैं जिन्होंने Oedipus complex को एक अवधारणा के रूप में विकसित किया। उनका जन्म 6 मई, 1856 को ऑस्ट्रियाई साम्राज्य के फ्रीबर्ग, मोराविया में हुआ था और 23 सितंबर, 1939 को लंदन, इंग्लै...

Existentialism: A Short Note Existentialism is a movement in the field of philosophy and literature. It is a reaction against the traditional schools of philosophy of Rationalism, British Empiricism and Positivism. It emphasizes individual existence, freedom and choice. It began in the 19th Century but it reached at its peak in mid-20th Century France. Existentialism was developed by the 19th Century Danish philosopher Kierkegaard and the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. The Phenomenology of Martin Heidegger also contributed to the development of this movement. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Arthur Schopenhauer also enriched the development of Existentialism. Max Stirner, Karl Jaspers, Edmund Husserl, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Franz Kafka, Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, Simone de Beauvoir and Maurice Merleau-Ponty are some other popular names of this movement. But Jean-Paul Sartre is the most well-known existentialist. According to this philosophical belief, we ourselves are res...

रस की अवधारणा रस की अवधारणा भारतीय कविता की एक भव्य पुरानी अवधारणा है। रस को संस्कृत साहित्य का सर्वोच्च मूल्य माना गया है। यह सौंदर्य सुख का दूसरा नाम है। नाट्यशास्त्र के रचयिता भरत मुनि को रस सिद्धांत के प्रथम आचार्य के रूप में जाना जाता है। एक प्रसिद्ध दार्शनिक अभिनवगुप्त ने भरत मुनि द्वारा प्रतिपादित रस सिद्धांत की व्याख्या की है।भरत मुनि ने आठ रसों का प्रतिपादन किया है । उनके नाट्यशास्त्र के अनुसार, प्रत्येक रस का एक पीठासीन देवता और एक विशिष्ट रंग होता है। उन्होंने निम्नलिखित की स्थापना की: 1. श्रृंगारम (प्रेम, आकर्षण): पीठासीन देवता - विष्णु; रंग- हल्का हरा। 2. हास्यम (हँसी, हास्य): पीठासीन देवता - प्रमाता; रंग- सफेद। 3. रौद्रम (रोष): पीठासीन देवता - रुद्र; रंग- लाल। 4. करुण्यम (करुणा, दया): पीठासीन देवता - यम; रंग- ग्रे। 5. बिभत्सम (घृणा, घृणा): पीठासीन देवता - शिव; रंग- नीला। 6. भयनाकम (डरावनी, आतंक) - पीठासीन देवता - काल; रंग - काला। 7. वीरम (वीर मूड) - पीठासीन देवता - इंद्र; रंग - पीला-सा । 8. अद्भुतम (आश्चर्य, विस्मय) - पीठासीन देवता - ब्रह्मा; रंग- पीला।

The concept of rasa is a grand old concept of Indian poetry. Rasa has been accepted as the highest value of Sanskrit literature. It is the other name of aesthetic pleasure. Bharat Muni, the author of Natyashastra, is known as the first Acharya of the rasa theory. Abhinavgupta, a renowned philosopher, has explained the rasa theory propounded by Bharat Muni.Bharat Muni enunciated the eight rasas. According to his Natyashastra, each rasa has a presiding deity and a specific colour. He established the following: 1. Shringaram (Love, Attractiveness): Presiding Deity - Vishnu; Colour- Light Green. 2. Hasayam (Laughter, Mirth, Comedy): Presiding Deity - Pramata; Colour- White. 3. Raudram (Fury): Presiding Deity - Rudra; Colour- Red. 4. Karunyam (Compassion, Mercy): Presiding Deity - Yama ; Colour- Grey. 5. Bibhatsam (Disgust, Aversion): Presiding Deity - Shiva ; Colour- Blue. 6. Bhayanakam (Horror, Terror) - Presiding Deity - Kala ; Colour- Black. 7. Viram (Heroic mood) - Presiding Deity ...

Such A Long Journey: A Review Such A Long Journey, no doubt, is an interesting novel. It has been written by Rohinton Mistry who is appreciated as one of the prestigious members of Indian Diaspora. What a fascinating novel it is! This fantastic piece of work deals with India and its culture. It is closely linked with social and political environment of our motherland India. It beautifully portrays the life of an Indian city, Bombay. As we know that the year 1971 is a sensitive point in contemporary Indian history. It was a time of domestic turmoil. It was the time of politics of partiality and aggression. This period also saw the increase of communal politics. Such A Long Journey presents an effective picture of that 1971 of India. Such A Long Journey is a story of Gustad Noble, a kind hearted Parsi bank clerk. It tells the tale of his family and his friends, his hope and his despair and his success and his failure. The entire tale of this fantastic fiction revolves round Gustad’...

Anglo- Saxon period (450- 1050) When the Teutonic ancestors of English people were living on the borders of the North Sea, English Literature began with their songs and stories. The three tribes of these ancestors, the Jutes, Angles and Saxons, conquered Britain in the latter half of the fifth century. They laid the foundation of the English nation. After that the early English literature started. This early English literature is called the Anglo- Saxon period (450- 1050) or the Old English period. The great and hidden life of the Anglo-Saxons finds expression in all their literature. According to William J. Long , their poetry deals with ‘their love of personal freedom, their responsiveness to nature, their religion, their reverence for womanhood, and their struggle for glory as a ruling motive in every noble life’. ‘The prose, unlike the verse, was not used as an emotional stimulant; it was for the most part educational’, says Rickett.

Derrida and his Concept of Deconstruction: A short Note Introduction: Jacques Derrida is a major modern French philosopher. He is popular for developing the concept of deconstruction. This concept offers a method of analyzing texts. This famous concept criticizes the traditional Western philosophical ideas, like the idea that speech is superior to writing. This concept of Derrida is complex and multifaceted. It is often misunderstood or misrepresented. But this concept is very influential in the field of literature, law, history and political theory. Deconstruction: Deconstruction is a method of analyzing texts. The aim of this method is to challenge fixed meanings and hierarchies in texts and ideas. It exposes the inherent instability and contradictions within language itself. By deconstructing binary oppositions (like good/evil, speech/writing) Derrida reveals their interdependence. Deconstruction doesn't seek one 'true' meaning but rather a more nuanced understand...

Dhvani theory by Anandavardhana: A note The Dhvani theory is a milestone in the history of Indian literary criticism. It is Anandavardhana who outlined this theory in his most famous work Dhvanyaloka. Anandavardhana is a prominent figure in Indian literary criticism and a renowned Kashmiri scholar of the 8th or 9th century. He proposed the concept of ‘dhvani’ or ‘aesthetic suggestion’ as the soul of poetry in his Dhvanyaloka . This concept sparked a long-lasting debate in Indian aesthetics. It heavily influenced literary criticism for centuries. Dhvani theory emphasizes the emotional resonance created by a poem. According to this concept, in a poem the deeper meaning is suggested rather than directly stated. Dhvani refers to the suggestive or implied meaning in a poem. According to this concept the suggested meaning is often evoked through figures of speech. This meaning is more powerful than the literal meaning of the words. This concept is recognized for elevating the role of...

INTRODUCTION: An unbroken tradition is validated time and again in Indian art practices. From antiquities to the contemporary, Indian art has a strong link with 'saundarya shastra ' or aesthetics. Indian aesthetics is understood as the theorization of the theory of the beautiful. The rasa theory is widely known as the major contribution of Indian aesthetics to the field of aesthetics in general. ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF RASA THEORY: In the 4th Century A.D. Bharata in his Natyashastra enunciated the theory of art. This theory focused on the idea of 'Rasa' for the first time. It was later elaborately developed by many learned scholars, philosophers and theoreticians. Abhinavagupta, Bhattatauta, Bhatta Lollata, Kuntaka, Dandin, Mammata, Vamana, Rudrata, Visvanatha, Bhamaha and Jagannatha contributed greatly to the development of Indian aesthetics. Abhinavagupta’s Dhvanyaloka revolutionized Sanskrit literary theory by proposing that the main goal of g...

INTRODUCTION: William Wordsworth was primarily a poet but still he has given us a most comprehensive critical document in the form of the 'Preface to Lyrical Ballads'. It has an epoch-making significance. It strikes a new note in the history of English literary criticism. It is the manifesto of the Romantic Movement. It gave a new direction, consciousness and programme to English Romanticism. THEMES OF POETRY:' The Preface' marks a revolution in matter of selection of subject for the purpose of poetry. Here Wordsworth has discarded the Neo-classical approach. His approach is romantic. He advocates that the theme of poetry should be drawn from simple and rustic life. The poet should choose incidents and situations from common life. According to Wordsworth in this rustic and humble life the fundamental passions of the heart develop smoothly and grow harmoniously. They are not controlled by the fastidious rules of the so-called society. Thus the real subject ma...

INTRODUCTION: Dr. Johnson is one of the greatest critics. As a literary critic he was an exponent of classicism. He condemned everything that did not conform to classical doctrines. He is almost always penetrating and stimulating. His 'Preface to Shakespeare' is considered as one of the noblest monuments of English neo-classical criticism. His judgment of Shakespeare marks the date in the history of criticism. FIDELITY TO FACTS OF NATURE: 'The Preface to Shakespeare' deals with Johnson's judgment of Shakespeare as a dramatist. According to Johnson, the basic requirement of literary greatness is fidelity to facts of nature. This is clearly the neo-classical theory of art as imitation. Johnson praises Shakespeare for meeting this requirement fully and most satisfactorily. According to him, Shakespeare is, par excellence, the poet of nature. He holds up to his readers a faithful mirror of manners and of life. His characters have a universal appeal. They act and sp...

INTRODUCTION: Longinus is one of the greatest Greek critics. His position is only next to Aristotle. His 'On the Sublime' is an immortal critical document of great worth and significance. It deals wit h the principle of sublimity in the world of writing. Here Longinus discusses the meaning, the nature and the sources of sublime. He distinguishes the true sublime from the false sublime. He advises how to overcome the vices of sublime. His suggestions are of permanent and paramount value. WHAT IS SUBLIMITY: Sublimity is a certain loftiness, distinction and consummation of excellence in language, expression and composition. It is the echo of a great soul. It raises style above the ordinary. Some persons are of the view that sublimity is a gift of nature. They think that it has nothing to do with art. But one should not forget that nature needs the help of art to control its wild impulses. In fact, both nature and art contribute to sublimity in literature. According to L...

INTRODUCTION: Longinus is one of the greatest Greek critics. His position is only next to Aristotle. His 'On the Sublime' is an immortal critical document of great worth and significance. It deals with the principle of sublimity in the world of writing.  He was the first European Critic who emphasised the importance of style. He made the use of both the historical and comparative methods in literary criticism. CONTROVERSY: In regard to his contribution the critics are divided in their opinions. Scott James hails him as the first romantic critic whereas prof. Atkins admires him as a great classical critic. In fact, Longinus is a classicist in taste, romantic in temper and an idealist at heart. He anticipated much that is modern in critical world. AS A ROMANTIC: Longinus is a romanticist in temper. For him literature is not a mechanical work but a thing of the spirit of imagination, of feeling and the gift of communication. Again and again he directs attention from the t...